Political
History of Europe During the Middle Ages, when the kings were the only authority, it was impossible for the division of forces to take place. Monarchs of the Middle Ages base their rule on sword and conquer which enable the founder of the country to rule for this reason. The people who are conquering lands of founding country in the name of God were treated as selected people. As a result of this; it would be a very hard decision for a king with unlimited power, to be under the mondate of a more powerful king. In such Aa period, when I.Richard left his throne to his brother John it was a very big issue concerning today’s democracies, that King John accepted to limit his own power with Magna Carta. The treaty, which was signed between the king and Barons in 1215, has the characteristic of being the firstconstition. King John, who is using all the feudal powers of his throne to reconquer Normandy and Poitu, facer an increasing opposition especially in North england. Bounnes and La Roche-aux-moins which were added to the new economical responsabilities were very hard thatthe barons were on the way of a rebellion. Consequantly, Barons rebelled, but couldn’t defeated the profossional soldiers and the castles around england. In 17 May 1215 Barons and citizens of London agree and the Barons conquerd London. King John left closed in Windsor. This situation is the creator of Magna Carta, and it enabled the bargain between the King and the Barons in June in Runnymede. Magna Carta consist of 63 points. Some of these points lost importance as time passed, whereas some became more important. Some exemples of the points are: 1- Church will be opuot
of King’s intervention These points are importent building blocks of the modern state formations states have reached the secular ideology through these first steps. It’s obvious that, the the statement of abolishment of unbound authority, which is the essence of modern states, is a big step toward reaching today’s idea of democrarcy. The third part (above) is one of the important steps that enabled yhe judicary to work in a just way. It also shows us the conditions of the fourth point providing a prototype for the control of legislative and executive powers. Some of points of Magna carta became the fundamental principles of modern states. This treaty is important for various countries history of constitutional law as well as England. This treaty has become the fundemental source of constitutional rule system. Selman Saglam Bibliography: The New Age began with conquest of Istanbul by Turks which means in the same time the fall of Byzantine Empire. In the New Age, there was a progression in many areas, especially in Europe. Increase in popularity of the press in Europe, Renaissance and Reform movements are some of the important progressions in the New Age.
Conquest of Istanbul by Turks changed the balances of the world and caused the beginning of the New Age. By the fall of Byzantine Empire, the scholars in Istanbul escaped to Italy together with antique manuscripts and played an important role in appearance of Renaissance. Destruction of the city walls by cannons during the conquest of Istanbul proved that feudalism could be destroyed. Power and wealth of Ottoman Empire made the Europeans search for new resources and effected the beginning of the Geographical Discoveries. Renaissance, “rebirth”, began in Italy. From now on, human is the centre of everything. Wishes, feelings and thoughts of human are important. The thought wave that we call humanism appeared by examination of antique sources. The church lost its authority by human improving the thought. This movement also made progress in all kind of art. Painting, music, sculpture and all other art branches were effected by human gaining priority. Renaissance was followed by Reform movement. After Martin Luther had declared his thoughts in Germany, Catholics and church’s authority were effected badly. Calvin also started a movement similar to Luther’s, in France. Reform had for purpose to return to essence of Christianity, to purify the Bible from interpretations of the church and people and to remove the church between human and the God. Protestantism, which was founded with Reform, gathered many followers especially in Germany and caused the beginning of the Sect Wars. Despite the declarations which gave equality to Protestants, like Nantes Decree, the Thirty Years’ War couldn’t be prevented. The Thirty Years’ War lasting between the years 1618-1648 was an European war which had been started because of the quarrel between Catholics and Protestants. Many people died because of the war, the epidemic started with war and the famine. The war passing mostly in Germany left a ruined country behind. A radiant period began in France. These wars which had also included Spain and Sweden were ended with Treaty of Westphalia. Protestants gained the freedom to believe and France widened its lands. There were many massacres because of the different sects and people suffered for many years. On the other hand, Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) who was one of the humanists of Renaissance and who examined people’s passions and weaknesses, explained how to utilize them for ruling people. And also, according to the main idea of Machiavelli, “All the ways that lead to the purpose are legal and ethic.” . Machiavelli who is the first representative of the idea of nation-state, is also considered as one of the innovators of the fascism because of his thoughts which were used by fascists. It could be called as foundation of fascism in the New Age. If we consider the New
Age at the point of view of democracy, we can see many improvements
of thought. Human gaining priority, church losing authority,
art and science becoming freer are very important for democracy.
Despite the sect wars like the Thirty Years’ War, the
protestants gained their freedom to believe. In spite of the
fact that the totalitarian systems were founded; the New Age
was a very important process for freedoms. For a conclusion,
the scholastic thought of the Middle Age had been replaced
by freedom of thought at the New Age. The French Revolution and Democracy
The reason of American independence war was the reluctance of 13 British colonies in America in paying tax to Great Britain. In the end, this small skirmish was named “Independence War” and got a more important position. The declaration of American independence (1776) which was declared at the end of the war is very important from the view of democracy and human rights. According to this declaration all human beings had the inborn rights of living, freedom and being happy. All of the states had been established to provide these rights, therefore all of the administrators get the power with the consents of those who are directed. “If a government behave in the opposite of these targets, the nation can change this government with a new one.” This declaration which has stressed the importance of democracy has both affected the French people and played a great role in the development of concept of democracy. Of course the French Revolution did not occur suddenly. In addition to visible reasons, a lot of pioneer people had also contributed to the development of the thoughts which constituted the bases of the revolution. The famous French writer J.J Rousseau is the most distinguished one of these people. How Voltaire has formed the knowledge and intelligence of the French Revolution, in the same way J.J.Rousseau has formed the emotionel world of the revolution. According to J.J.Rousseau: all human beings are free from birth but they have been chained everywhere so the revolution is the legal way to get these rights back and only the nations had the right of getting these rigths back. Edgar Quinet said for J.J.Rousseau that whatever the seeds mean for the trees, J.J.Rousseau means the same thing for the revolution. The regimen peaks in the 1789 with all of these efforts and get the targets. On the way to democracy king Louis the 16th wandered in the city by carrying the flag with blue, white and red colors. Later, the declaration for human beings and citizens was accepted. (26 August) In the end, the republic as a democratic way of administration was announced on the 21st of September. Despite short life span,
the French Revolution is one of the most outstanding events
in the history of humanity which led to the closing of an
old age and opening a new one. The French Revolution which
had a great role in the formation and development of the concept
of democracy is an historical event that should be a good
example and lesson for the next generations. The
Major Reasons Preparing the The research of equity and fairness of Russian people, lack of justice and freedom led by the opressive and despotic admistration of Tsar; when we researched the reasons and the bases of socio-economic and socio-cultural structure of the reign of Tsar which was occured mainly in the second half of the 19 th century and the beginning of the 20 th century we consider the contradictions in every field occured in the Russian Revelotion 1917 September. On the way of democracy of the strict and dictatorship of Tsar’s regime during the reign of Petro I, and Alexander I, we witness both the promotion of technical and professional traning and the increase of the number of people trained widespreadly adn in 1803 the emanicipation of the slaves who were brought and sold with the land that they belong to. During the reign of Tsar; as its impossible to consider democracy in capitalism, a different period was being led in Russia, which had incredibly different social gabs between social groups, whose peasants felt opressive and despotic pressure on them and where the nobles and the owner of the private properties led luxury whereas a life in labors died of hunger. The peasants and labors
on behalf of constructing higher life standarts and the sake
of justice and freedom had to become concious affected by
the revolutionary and socialist thoughts and ideas at the
same term. For the sake of the right and freedom; the labors and peasants who couldnt express what they wanted and what they thought if they did they were punished curely through the way on democracy. (getting rid of slaver) they emanicipated indivudially in 1861. They worked in factories under terrible conditions and were paid low wages just to act just like the developing European countries. Deciding the importance of redistrubution of land (just to lead a normal life) peasants wanted to establish a union with the factory workers. This large social group which was supported by the union with the help of the socialist thoughts, swept into the political propagandas and revolutions in 1879. At home in the 1860 s radical university students and nihilist critics such as Nikolai Chernyshevsky voiced dissatisfaction with the pace direction of the reforms. Radical associations were formed to propagandize socialist ideas, and student youth “ went to the people” in 1874-76 to enlighten and revolutionize the peasantry. Repressed by the government, the young radicals turned to terrorizm. Eventually a group of Narodniki (populists) called the people’s will condemned the Emperor to death, and after several dramatic but unsuccesful attempt they killed him on March 13 1881. As a result of natural
and social system of inequality with pressure and torture
caused the persecuters rebelled. However the rebellian prvoked
the opressive and despotic regime which means the owners of
the anti-democratic system made the solders and the politicians
on the democratic side stop supporting them. This position
helped the increse of the number of the subscribed the union
and rebellion enlarged. The turmoil of the Russian
revelotion of 1905, culminated in the general strike of October,
which forced Nikolas II to grant a constution. After the collapse of the temporary government, radical Soviet (Council ) of Soldiers’ and Workers’ Deputies was founded. In the following years after the 1905 Revolution, Russian Social Democratic Labor Party’s Menshevik Wing was defending to wait for the capitalism to develop at the same time of the Bolsheviks which were leaded by Lenin were unioned in a deciplined nucleus and were predicting the proletary to take over the control of the industry, Bolshevik’s believed that it was necessary to have the democratic revolution and right after the Social Revolution. In 1917, there were rebellions, people trying to stay alive, fighting for their rights, proletaries trying tp get their freedom. At this time Lenin was trying to emphesize Marx’s theory to Russia and try to narrow down the road of the temporary government. Bolsheviks were against the war and the peasants which were the majority of the population were trying to move the Soviet propagation to rural areas. The Petrograd Soviet found more reputation and authority than the temporary government because in Russia there was a big mojar proletary community which was supporting the Russian government. The government was changed four times four times in between March and October. The more the society bended to left, the more thegovernments formed by coalitions. But these never stopped the war. It never found a a solutions for the main country porblems. Soviet whihc fitted in to the Petrograd model had the control. In July the temporary
govenrment stopped a big coup but could not stop the retaining
in social, economic and military ways in Russia. Its trying
to hold still to the center caused its left wing to tear apart
and union with the other left revolutioners. Bolsheviks and
Left Socialist Revolutioners with the help of the Kerenski’s
warm Socialist Revoutioners, foremd the majority agains the
Mencheviks both in Petrograd and Moscow Soviet. “Peace,
Soil and Bread”, platform of Bolsheviks were attracting
the hungary workers of the cities and the ansents without
leave. Big Russian Proletary,
which was lack of equality and fairness, and also was pressured
under the opressive and despotic administration of the Tsar;
won their with their democratic revolution and socialist development
at the end of the 19th century. As a consequence with taking
a step on the way to the democracy, the Soviet Society gained
its rights from birth and became one of the most important
political, economic and military powers of the world. The Mussolini government in Italy and the union of workers of Marx
The consequence for Italy who participated to the First World War with grand hope was a grand desperation. By the time the war ended, the domestic affairs of Italy were already complicated. The war had been a massive effect on the economy. In addition to the liberal democracy of Italy, the ideas of syndicalism, socialism and communism could be observed. 50000 deserters who were hiding themselves in every region of the country, morally and economically dissatisfied discharged soldiers and intellectual citizens were also causing a lot of trouble. The governments hadn’t got the enough amount of authority for being able to govern a country. The chaotic situation of the country had been useful for the Fascist Party, which was directed by Benito Mussolini. This political party, which was the enemy of communism and liberalism, which was fore the discipline and nationalism, has become the government of Italy in the month of August 1922. The citizens of Italy clung into the disciplinised soul of fascism, in the anarchic situation of the country. That event was the beginning of the Mussolini and the Fascist Party’s dictatorship. The first mission of Mussolini was to individualize the government by abolishing the opposition parties and the democratic establishments according to the argument, which says ‘The regime that we constructed is perfect, so there is no need for an opposition party.’ That was a reaction of the Europe after the war against the liberalism of the nineteenth century. The confusion, anarchy and instability of the large quantities of people had strengthened the fashion of the regimes that are based on discipline. Germany was another country
where the fascism increased its’ influence. Germany,
which was the resource of Nazism, was another country that
was dishonored by the loss of the First World War. Despite
being an industrially developed country, the Germany wasn’t
as powerful as England and France was in international marketing
and having raw material. The monopolies were dominant in industry
and public. The banks and industrial monopolies were working
together. Monopolizing was hardening to balance the economical
forces, so the construction of democracy. In 1929, the World
Economic Crisis affected the whole world, and the unemployment
level had increased. Nazis, by the help of these problems,
came to power and became the government of Germany. They defended
the Priority and the Privileges of the German Nation; they
talked about the rights of the ex-colonies and the harms of
the parliamentary system. According to their ideas, the system
of education should have been based on respecting the government,
and the middle classes should have been strengthened. They
promised to start a land reform, and to take steps against
the capitalist system, which looks for earning money without
any production. But when the Nazis came to power and became
the government, they never took any steps against the benefits
of the capitalist system.
Sevil Altinoz |
